Linguistic smothies

The origin of smog, popsicle, and other common portmanteaus

We all know that brunch means breakfast plus lunch, or that Eurasia is used to refer to the connected European and Asian continents. But did you know that words like twirl, smog, or Texarkana are in the same category of portmanteaus or blend words?

Portmanteaus (from the French porte-manteau, ‘cloak-carrier’, a suitcase that opens in two equal parts) are terms formed by combining two or more words, their sounds, or their meanings. They were named by Lewis Carrol (the one from Alice in Wonderland) to explain the logic behind some odd words in his poem Jabberwocky: like a porte-manteau that you open in two parts, portmanteaus are opened to reveal two meanings. Let’s explore some common portmanteaus (and also some that are false).

This word is used to talk about anything that spins or rotates, like someone doing a pirouette or moving their thumbs around each other. It is a term common in everyday language, but did you know it’s a blend of two words?

Yes, twirl comes from combining twist and whirl, both in sound and meaning. A twirl, then, is a rotation (twist) that happens rapidly (whirl). Something to think about the next time you find yourself twirling your thumbs.

The word ‘popsicle’ was originally the name of an ice pop brand started by Frank Epperson, who forgot a bucket of powdered lemonade on his porch and found it frozen the next morning. But how did the word ‘popsicle’ come to be?

This treat was originally called the "Epsicle ice pop", a combination of Epperson and icicle. Allegedly, Frank’s children started calling it a ‘popsicle’ (pop + icicle) and insisted the name be changed. In time, the brand became so popular that it became the usual term for any ice pop.

If you ever find yourself near the Texas-Arkansas border, you might find a city called Texarkana. In fact, you might find two cities called Texarkana, one in each state, both in the Texarkana Metropolitan Area.

It’s not clear who named them, but everyone agrees that Texarkana is a portmanteau for Texas-Arkansas-Louisiana. Both cities claim to have the same birth date, but we can debunk this: Arkansan Texarkana was founded a year before Texan Texarkana.

First of all, what is a contrail? Contrails are the line-shaped clouds left by aircraft, missiles, or rockets as a result of engine exhaust vapor combining with low temperatures. The vapor of the engines condenses when it contacts the cold atmosphere, leaving a trail, so condensation + trail: contrail.

Sadly for couch potatoes everywhere, it is a proven fact that exercise makes you feel good. This is because, during physical exercise, our brain creates endorphins, which work as painkillers and mood boosters.

Why are these natural painkillers called this way? You might remember the word morphine, the name of a common opiate analgesic. Endorphins are endogenous, meaning they are created by our organism. Combine this word with an old spelling of morphine, endogenous + morphin: endorphin.

Any sitcom fan might tell you that the appeal of the genre is not about the narrative arcs but the funny situations the characters find themselves in.

This comedic format, originally produced for radio, was first called situational comedy. With time, it was combined into a portmanteau, situational + comedy: sitcom.

Let’s have a look at a false portmanteau. For centuries before sugar was brought to Europe, parsnips were used as a sweetener. Ancient Romans called them pastinaca, now part of their scientific name (pastinaca sativa). How did they come to be called parsnips?

It is a widespread belief that parsnip is a portmanteau for parsley + turnip, since parsnip leaves look similar to parsley, but this is not true. In Old French, parsnips were called pasnaie, a word that Old English adopted as pasnepe. The ending -nepe meant turnip, so in time, pasnepe evolved into parsnip. So, not a blended word, but one that you will find in many portmanteau lists.

Being electrocuted is not a pleasant experience, and the origins of the word are as gruesome as the thing described. In the late 19th Century, the state of New York adopted the electric shock as the standard form of capital punishment. Newspapers covering the first execution by this method mixed the words electric + execution, coining the portmanteau electrocution.

Lacking a judicial term to describe accidental deaths caused by electricity, electrocution came to be used for all incidents involving an electric shock.

Air pollution is an unfortunate reality in our current world, and words like smog are a byproduct of these environmental issues. The city of London has suffered from bad air quality and fog for many centuries, an issue only worsened by smoke during the Industrial Revolution.

This phenomenon, also called pea soup fog, eventually became known as smog, a portmanteau of smoke + fog. The term not only describes the greyish color associated with it, but also the smell produced by chemical contaminants.

Let’s end our list with a portmanteau nearly as old as the profession it names. In the English language, the word shepherd is recorded as early as the 12th Century, though it had been in use for many centuries before that. Middle English sceepherde comes from Old English scēaphyrde, a portmanteau for scēap (sheep) + hierde (herdsman, someone who keeps domesticated animals).

The original term was only used for animal keepers, but eventually gained the added meaning of ‘leader’ or ‘guide’. Lewis Carroll might have named portmanteaus in the 19th Century, but they have existed since the dawn of time.

Deep roots

11 everyday words with indigenous roots

English is a very welcoming language in the sense that it incorporates terms from many other languages from all over the world. And, as it couldn’t be otherwise, Native American languages have lent many of their words and terms to English speakers. Some traveled through Spanish or French before settling into English, and others arrived directly through early contact and trade, helping shape the way we speak today. Did you know about these 11 terms?

The word "canoe" comes from the Taino term canoa, which was first used by Caribbean islanders long before Europeans arrived. Early explorers adopted it to describe the slim, sturdy boats they saw.

Over time, "canoe" became the standard English word for a small paddled craft. Today it still carries that sense of simplicity and closeness to nature.

The word "barbecue" comes from barbacoa, another Taino term for a wooden frame used for cooking meat over fire. Europeans adopted it and applied it to both the method and the gathering itself.

Today, "barbecue" means everything from a backyard cookout to a regional cooking style. Its origins highlight the deep culinary influence of Native Americans in the nation's current culture.

"Skunk" comes from the Algonquian word squnk, which means "urinating fox" (quite a fitting term, indeed). This was an obvious reference to the animal’s strong defensive spray. Early settlers adopted the term directly.

Since English had no better name for the creature, the Native word stuck. Today, the word skunks is also used as playful slang.

The word "moose" originates from Eastern Abenaki, a part of the Algonquian family, where it meant "he strips off bark." Yes, it described the animal’s habit of tearing bark from trees.

The name entered English quickly because settlers relied on Native knowledge of local fauna. The word remains unchanged because of its accuracy and usefulness.

"Raccoon" comes from the Powhatan word arakun, meaning "he scratches with his hands." It described the animal’s clever, humanlike front paws.

Settlers adopted the term because it captured the creature’s behavior beautifully. Today, the raccoon is used as a household symbol of curiosity, not unlike the animal itself.

The term "chipmunk" most probably comes from the Ojibwe word ajidamoo, which means "one who descends trees headfirst." Early English settlers adapted the sound into today’s form.

Though the spelling changed over time, the lively image of a chipmunk racing down a tree face-first stayed.

The word "caribou" comes from the Mi’kmaq term qalipu, which means "snow shoveler," referring to the animal’s habit of digging through snow for food.

French settlers brought the word into English, keeping its descriptive nature. The name still connects the modern animal to the winter landscapes it belongs to.

"Totem" comes from the Ojibwe word ototeman, which means "kinship group." It described symbols representing clans and shared roots.

English adopted it to describe carved poles and symbolic elements. Though broader in modern usage, it still hints at the original sense of community, identity, and heritage.

"Coyote" comes from the Nahuatl word coyōtl, which was used by Indigenous tribes of central Mexico. Spanish speakers adopted it, and English borrowed later.

The word kept its meaning, and it remains one of the most direct links between the English language and Nahuatl.

The tasty avocado’s name traces to the Nahuatl word ahacatl, which refers to the fruit and to a body part as well. Spanish speakers transformed it into aguacate.

Later on, English speakers adapted it to avocado. While the name sounds contemporary and culinary, it has ancient Native roots.

The last Nahuatl word and also the last word on the list comes from the term xocolātl, which describes a bitter cacao drink that was consumed long before Europeans arrived in America. The name traveled from Spanish to English.

Though the product changed dramatically, the word survived. Today, chocolate is a universal symbol of sweetness, with rich and deeply indigenous roots.