BREAKING THE GLASS CEILING

Let's Recognize The Women Behind These 10 Scientific Discoveries!

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Did you know that women made many scientific contributions, but their names were hidden and their discoveries attributed to men? This phenomenon is so common that it even has a name: the Matilda Effect. American historian of science Margaret W. Rossiter coined the term in 1993 in honor of Matilda Joslyn Gage, a prominent suffragist and abolitionist who had highlighted the importance of women inventors almost a century earlier. In an attempt to give them back at least some of the recognition they deserve, in this article, we have selected 10 women who changed the history of humanity.

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Probably one of the best examples of the Matilda effect is the story of British scientist Rosalind Franklin. While doing research at King's College in London in 1951, Rosalind discovered that the molecule of DNA existed in a helical conformation when she was taking X-ray photographs of the structure. She presented her findings, which included a picture of the double helix, at a conference attended by the American molecular biologist James Watson.

Later, this important finding was the basis for Watson and Francis Crick's research on the subject. In 1953 the scientists published a study attaching the photograph taken by Rosalind without giving her credit for it. Watson and Crick were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962. Rosalind had died four years earlier without ever receiving recognition for her work.

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In 1967, British scientist Jocelyn Bell Burnell was studying for her PhD at Cambridge when she noticed signals repeating at regular intervals through the radio telescope she was working on. It was the first step in the discovery of pulsars, stars that emit very small radiation.

The findings appeared in scientific journals signed by her advisor, the astrophysicist Antony Hewish, as first author. For this reason, it was only Hewish who received the Nobel Prize in 1974. At the time, the academy ignored her altogether, although now the entire scientific community accepts that it was Jocelyn Bell Burnell who first made the observation.

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The prehistory of computer science was blessed with the invaluable contribution of Ada Lovelace, one of the most exciting characters of the 19th century, not only because of her lineage —she was the daughter of the great poet Lord Byron— but also because she was a pioneer in computer programming.

Her excellent notes to mathematician Charles Babbage's work on the "analytical machine" are

considered the first approaches to computer algorithms. Although Babbage himself acknowledged Lovelace's merit, his contemporaries tried to minimize her contribution based on Ada's eccentric nature and, above all, for being a woman. Fortunately, today her achievements are vindicated: Ada Lovelace Day is celebrated every second Tuesday in October as a way of honoring women's contributions to science and technology.

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This Chinese scientist is one of those women who deserve an extensive biopic for having dedicated almost her entire life to working passionately on the development of science. Emigrated to the United States before World War II, Chien-Shiung Wu was part of the team that worked on the Manhattan Project and the birth of the atomic bomb.

After the war, scientists Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang formulated the theory that the principle of conservation of parity was not valid and asked Chien-Shiung Wu to join in proving the ineffectiveness of this then-commonly accepted law. Although it was her work that finally disproved the theory, only Lee and Yang were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1957. Be as it may, her legacy is not entirely invisible: she is now known as the "First Lady of Physics" or "the Chinese Madame Curie" for her contributions to experimental physics.

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Hollywood star by day, researcher by night, Austrian-American actress Hedy Lamarr was not only a beauty icon of the 1940s but also responsible for developing a secure communications system called "frequency hopping."

Lamarr patented her invention in 1942, but unfortunately, at the time she was not given any credit due to the widespread belief that women could not be scientists or inventors and the fact that she was an actress. It wasn't until many years later that her work was finally recognized and became the basis for the development of technologies we use every day, such as WiFi, Bluetooth, and GPS. So now you know, it’s thanks to Hedy Lamarr's groundbreaking invention that today we can send messages, make calls, and connect to the internet without any wires.

Image: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases

Unfortunately, the story of Esther Miriam Zimmer Lederberg is very common, not only in science but also in other disciplines such as art and philosophy. Lederberg was a professor of microbiology and immunology at Stanford University and did pioneering work in genetics, yet it was her husband who took all the credit.

Esther and Joshua Lederberg specialized in research on bacterial colony transfer. It was she who, in 1951, discovered a virus that infects bacteria. Together they developed a transfer technique, called the Lederberg Method, which is still used today. But in 1958, her husband received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, and during the award ceremony, he didn’t mention Esther, even though the work had been done in collaboration.

Image: NASA

You've probably heard of Katherine Johnson thanks to the 2016 three-time Academy Award- nominee Hidden Figures. But before her film fame, Johnson was only known at NASA, where she worked for 35 years in the Space Task Group.

Her journey, however, was not an easy one. Her accomplishments often went unrecognized by her male co-workers, and she faced double discrimination: as a woman and as an African-American. Despite this, and thanks to her brilliant mathematical skills, Johnson gradually earned a place on the teams that worked on the first spacecraft launch in 1961 and her tireless work ultimately helped send astronauts to the moon in 1969.

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In 1938, Austrian physicist Lise Meitner had to flee Nazi Germany for being Jewish. Settled in Sweden, she embarked on a research on uranium with her laboratory partner, the German chemist Otto Hahn. Shortly thereafter, they discovered that the act of splitting atomic nuclei during "fission" releases enormous amounts of energy.

Although it was Meitner herself who wrote the first theoretical explanation of the process after the discovery, it was only Hahn who received the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1944. Well, not everything is lost, although she wasn’t awarded, she has an element of the periodic table named after her, meitnerium.

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American biologist and geneticist Nettie Stevens had the misfortune of discovering the XY chromosomes at exactly the same time as another —male— scientist in 1905. After receiving a master's degree from Stanford and a Ph.D. from Bryn Mawr, Stevens set out to revive and explain the genetic research of Austrian-Czech biologist Gregor Johann Mendel.

But Edmund Beecher Wilson also published his findings about the chromosomal XY sex-determination system and was widely praised as the sole discoverer. Interestingly, the two reports differed slightly: Wilson claimed that environmental factors determined sex, while Stevens thought it was only genetic. Lo and behold, time has proven that Nettie Stevens was right.

Image: NASA Hubble Space Telescope

Vera Rubin was a pioneering and brilliant American scientist. Through her research, she managed to convince the scientific community of the existence of dark matter, considered a scientific milestone and one of the great persistent mysteries of the universe.

Her work was also a forerunner in the study of the rotation of spiral galaxies. However, despite being one of the most influential astronomers of her time, Vera Rubin was not awarded the Nobel Prize nor did she receive the same recognition as some of her male colleagues. Perhaps this is why Vera dedicated her life to relentlessly advocating for the advancement of women in science, inviting them to important conferences and awarding them prizes in fields that historically were exclusive to men.

Deathbed statements

Beyond the grave: Take a look at the last words of 12 famous people

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Throughout history, hundreds of historical figures have left their mark on the world through their marvelous achievements. When their lives came to an end, their last words were often a reflection of their lives and ideals. From George Washington and Mark Twain to Frank Sinatra and Leonardo Da Vinci, in this article, we will reveal 12 final words of memorable personalities.

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After serving two terms as the United State's first president, George Washington retired to his Virginia plantation. In mid-December 1799, he developed a cold and a severe sore throat. Despite doctors' efforts to cure him, the end was imminent.

His long-time secretary, Tobias Lear, was at his side during his last days and documented all the events that transpired, including the former president's last words. According to his account, shortly before he took his last breath George Washington said "Tis well" —an old-fashioned way of saying "everything is okay."

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Noir icon of perpetual elegance and rebellious charisma, Humphrey Bogart is an undisputed legend in cinema history. A Hollywood Golden Age star, Bogart is still remembered today for his scar on his upper lip, his everlasting cigarette, and his perfect portrayal of gangsters and detectives.

At the age of 57 Bogart was diagnosed with esophageal cancer, for which he was hospitalized for several months. According to lore, the legendary star's last words were "I should never have switched from scotch to martinis." However, his wife Lauren Bacall confirmed that the last thing he actually said was "Goodbye Kid. Hurry back," before she left his bedside to get their children.

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As one of the greatest American writers of all time, Mark Twain is usually credited with all sorts of great quotes that he often didn't say. For that reason, there are different versions of what his last words were before he died in 1910 at the age of 74.

The most plausible theory can be found in an article published one day after his death. According to this chronicle, Samuel Langhorne Clemens' last words were not spoken aloud but written. The famous humorist and essayist reportedly wrote to his daughter Clara, who accompanied him on his bedside, "Give me my glasses."

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Joan Crawford, the Oscar winner for Mildred Pierce and one of the greatest stars of Hollywood's golden age, died in 1977 of a heart attack.

The actress, who had a complicated personality, was true to her nature until her last breath. She was so ill that her doctor felt it wasn’t worth taking her to the hospital. One of her nurses began to pray aloud in desperation. Losing her patience, Crawford snapped for the last time and said, "Damn it... Don't you dare ask God to help me."

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The year 2024 marked the 700th anniversary of the death of the man who better described remote lands. Marco Polo was a merchant who spent more than 20 years of his life traveling through the Orient and wrote about his adventures in a book that became a bestseller when the printing press wasn’t even invented.

Marco Polo was, and still is, a legend. When, on his deathbed, his wife and friends begged the brave explorer to confess if what he had told in the book was true, he barely whispered: "I have not told the half of what I saw and did."

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Julius Henry Marx, better known as Groucho Marx, is considered one of the most influential comedians of all time. The man with the bushy black mustache was one of the Marx Brothers. Together they made 13 films, including the classic Duck Soup. After a long and prominent career, Groucho passed away in Los Angeles in 1977 at the age of 86.

His brilliant one-liners are still remembered and replayed to this day, so it is not surprising that not one but several final words are attributed to him. A few close friends have suggested that his last line was "This is no way to live!", while most suggest that his last words were in fact dedicated to his wife: "Die, my dear? Why, that's the last thing I'll do!"

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Voltaire, the French writer, philosopher, historian, and lawyer, one of the major figures of the Enlightenment, died in 1778 at the age of 83. Different accounts of his deathbed make it impossible to determine exactly what his last days were like.

One of these stories, however, is consistent with his ideas about God and his well-known criticism of the Church. According to this version, when the priest asked him if he wanted to renounce Satan before he died, Voltaire replied, "This is no time to make new enemies."

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L. Frank Baum was a prolific American author. He wrote 55 novels, 82 short stories, and more than 200 poems. However, his most memorable work is his series of children's fantasy books The Wonderful Wizard of Oz.

On May 5, 1919, Baum suffered a heart attack. He died the next day, shortly before his 63rd birthday. Disturbed by the imminence of death, he whispered to his wife: "Now we can cross the Shifting Sands," a clear reference to the Land of Oz.

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Augustus, the first Roman emperor, is often attributed with the phrase: "Behold, I found Rome of clay, and leave her to you of marble," alluding to the great infrastructural works carried out during his prosperous 40 years of rule.

However, according to other historical accounts, his last words were addressed to the friends who stayed with him on his deathbed: "Have I played the part well? Then applaud, as I exit."

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"Darling, you've gone through worse and you can beat this too. You have to fight," implored Barbara Marx, Frank Sinatra's fourth wife, to her beloved on his deathbed. "I'm losing," The Voice whispered through teary eyes.

Barbara recounted the last hours of the singer of such hits as My Way and New York, New York in her memoir Lady Blue Eyes: My Life With Frank. Frank Sinatra, one of the most popular entertainers of the mid-20th century, pronounced his last words in 1998 at the age of 82.

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Despite being one of the most famous artists of the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci was very hard on himself. All his life he challenged his own limits, evident in his paintings and sculptures as well as in his inventions, some of which were truly revolutionary.

Even after a lifetime of success, he wasn’t quite satisfied. When he suffered a stroke at the age of 67, he sent for a priest to receive the Holy Sacrament and, according to historians, his greatest regret was that he hadn’t achieved excellence with his work. In that sense, it is said that his last words were: "I have offended God and mankind because my work did not reach the quality it should have."

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The Yankee Clipper was one of the greatest baseball players of all time but he is also known for having been married to the iconic American actress Marilyn Monroe. Joe and Marilyn were together for less than three years. In 1955 the actress left him for American playwright Arthur Miller.

DiMaggio was devastated. He never married again, and never got over his one true love. His last words before he died in 1999 at the age of 84 were: "I'll finally get to see Marilyn."