BREAKING THE GLASS CEILING

10 Hugely Important Discoveries Made By Women But Attributed To Men

Image: Andrea Piacquadio

Did you know that women made many scientific contributions, but their names were hidden and their discoveries attributed to men? This phenomenon is so common that it even has a name: the Matilda Effect. American historian of science Margaret W. Rossiter coined the term in 1993 in honor of Matilda Joslyn Gage, a prominent suffragist and abolitionist who had highlighted the importance of women inventors almost a century earlier. In an attempt to give them back at least some of the recognition they deserve, in this article, we have selected 10 women who changed the history of humanity.

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Probably one of the best examples of the Matilda effect is the story of British scientist Rosalind Franklin. While doing research at King's College in London in 1951, Rosalind discovered that the molecule of DNA existed in a helical conformation when she was taking X-ray photographs of the structure. She presented her findings, which included a picture of the double helix, at a conference attended by the American molecular biologist James Watson.

Later, this important finding was the basis for Watson and Francis Crick's research on the subject. In 1953 the scientists published a study attaching the photograph taken by Rosalind without giving her credit for it. Watson and Crick were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962. Rosalind had died four years earlier without ever receiving recognition for her work.

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In 1967, British scientist Jocelyn Bell Burnell was studying for her PhD at Cambridge when she noticed signals repeating at regular intervals through the radio telescope she was working on. It was the first step in the discovery of pulsars, stars that emit very small radiation.

The findings appeared in scientific journals signed by her advisor, the astrophysicist Antony Hewish, as first author. For this reason, it was only Hewish who received the Nobel Prize in 1974. At the time, the academy ignored her altogether, although now the entire scientific community accepts that it was Jocelyn Bell Burnell who first made the observation.

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The prehistory of computer science was blessed with the invaluable contribution of Ada Lovelace, one of the most exciting characters of the 19th century, not only because of her lineage —she was the daughter of the great poet Lord Byron— but also because she was a pioneer in computer programming.

Her excellent notes to mathematician Charles Babbage's work on the "analytical machine" are

considered the first approaches to computer algorithms. Although Babbage himself acknowledged Lovelace's merit, his contemporaries tried to minimize her contribution based on Ada's eccentric nature and, above all, for being a woman. Fortunately, today her achievements are vindicated: Ada Lovelace Day is celebrated every second Tuesday in October as a way of honoring women's contributions to science and technology.

Image: Dan Meyers

This Chinese scientist is one of those women who deserve an extensive biopic for having dedicated almost her entire life to working passionately on the development of science. Emigrated to the United States before World War II, Chien-Shiung Wu was part of the team that worked on the Manhattan Project and the birth of the atomic bomb.

After the war, scientists Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang formulated the theory that the principle of conservation of parity was not valid and asked Chien-Shiung Wu to join in proving the ineffectiveness of this then-commonly accepted law. Although it was her work that finally disproved the theory, only Lee and Yang were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1957. Be as it may, her legacy is not entirely invisible: she is now known as the "First Lady of Physics" or "the Chinese Madame Curie" for her contributions to experimental physics.

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Hollywood star by day, researcher by night, Austrian-American actress Hedy Lamarr was not only a beauty icon of the 1940s but also responsible for developing a secure communications system called "frequency hopping."

Lamarr patented her invention in 1942, but unfortunately, at the time she was not given any credit due to the widespread belief that women could not be scientists or inventors and the fact that she was an actress. It wasn't until many years later that her work was finally recognized and became the basis for the development of technologies we use every day, such as WiFi, Bluetooth, and GPS. So now you know, it’s thanks to Hedy Lamarr's groundbreaking invention that today we can send messages, make calls, and connect to the internet without any wires.

Image: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases

Unfortunately, the story of Esther Miriam Zimmer Lederberg is very common, not only in science but also in other disciplines such as art and philosophy. Lederberg was a professor of microbiology and immunology at Stanford University and did pioneering work in genetics, yet it was her husband who took all the credit.

Esther and Joshua Lederberg specialized in research on bacterial colony transfer. It was she who, in 1951, discovered a virus that infects bacteria. Together they developed a transfer technique, called the Lederberg Method, which is still used today. But in 1958, her husband received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, and during the award ceremony, he didn’t mention Esther, even though the work had been done in collaboration.

Image: NASA

You've probably heard of Katherine Johnson thanks to the 2016 three-time Academy Award- nominee Hidden Figures. But before her film fame, Johnson was only known at NASA, where she worked for 35 years in the Space Task Group.

Her journey, however, was not an easy one. Her accomplishments often went unrecognized by her male co-workers, and she faced double discrimination: as a woman and as an African-American. Despite this, and thanks to her brilliant mathematical skills, Johnson gradually earned a place on the teams that worked on the first spacecraft launch in 1961 and her tireless work ultimately helped send astronauts to the moon in 1969.

Image: Frédéric Paulussen

In 1938, Austrian physicist Lise Meitner had to flee Nazi Germany for being Jewish. Settled in Sweden, she embarked on a research on uranium with her laboratory partner, the German chemist Otto Hahn. Shortly thereafter, they discovered that the act of splitting atomic nuclei during "fission" releases enormous amounts of energy.

Although it was Meitner herself who wrote the first theoretical explanation of the process after the discovery, it was only Hahn who received the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1944. Well, not everything is lost, although she wasn’t awarded, she has an element of the periodic table named after her, meitnerium.

Image: Sangharsh Lohakare

American biologist and geneticist Nettie Stevens had the misfortune of discovering the XY chromosomes at exactly the same time as another —male— scientist in 1905. After receiving a master's degree from Stanford and a Ph.D. from Bryn Mawr, Stevens set out to revive and explain the genetic research of Austrian-Czech biologist Gregor Johann Mendel.

But Edmund Beecher Wilson also published his findings about the chromosomal XY sex-determination system and was widely praised as the sole discoverer. Interestingly, the two reports differed slightly: Wilson claimed that environmental factors determined sex, while Stevens thought it was only genetic. Lo and behold, time has proven that Nettie Stevens was right.

Image: NASA Hubble Space Telescope

Vera Rubin was a pioneering and brilliant American scientist. Through her research, she managed to convince the scientific community of the existence of dark matter, considered a scientific milestone and one of the great persistent mysteries of the universe.

Her work was also a forerunner in the study of the rotation of spiral galaxies. However, despite being one of the most influential astronomers of her time, Vera Rubin was not awarded the Nobel Prize nor did she receive the same recognition as some of her male colleagues. Perhaps this is why Vera dedicated her life to relentlessly advocating for the advancement of women in science, inviting them to important conferences and awarding them prizes in fields that historically were exclusive to men.

What science says

It was false after all: 10 health myths that sound true—but aren't

Image: Alicja Gancarz

Health myths are everywhere! These ideas were simply passed down for so long that they became part of what we believed. But now science has stepped in to clear things up. Does cold weather make you sick? Can lemon detox your body? Is reading in low light really harmful? Let's uncover the truth behind 10 common health myths!

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Have you ever been told that cutting your hair will make it grow faster? We're sorry to say that's just a myth. Hair grows from the root, not the ends. So, trimming it won't boost growth, though it does help remove split ends that can make your hair look dry or unhealthy.

Image: Thom Holmes

This is one of the most common health myths. Cold weather often gets blamed, but it's not the temperature that makes you catch a cold. During winter, we tend to stay indoors with others and keep the windows closed, an environment that makes it easier for viruses to spread. That's why colds tend to be more common in winter!

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The idea that eating before bed automatically leads to weight gain is a myth. In reality, it has more to do with what you eat and how much, rather than the time of day. Often, when we eat very late at night, we're tired and more likely to reach for quick, high-calorie, heavy foods. This can disrupt sleep and lead to consuming more calories than we burn, both of which may affect weight. If it's close to bedtime, it's better to have something light and healthy in a moderate portion than to skip a meal altogether.

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Does wearing glasses weaken your vision? Myth! If an eye doctor prescribes glasses, wearing them as directed helps correct your vision; it won't make it worse. Additionally, the right glasses can help prevent or reduce headaches caused by reading or spending long hours in front of a screen.

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This myth is closely related to the previous one. If you love reading and sometimes have to do it in low light because of the situation, don't worry. According to experts, reading in low light doesn't cause permanent or irreversible eye damage. However, it's not recommended because it can make your eyes feel tired or strained, leading to discomfort or headaches.

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We're all different, and so are our bodies. The idea that everyone should drink exactly eight glasses of water a day is more of a general guideline than a rule. Staying well hydrated throughout the day is extremely important, but how much water you need depends on factors like your weight, age, climate, and overall health. We should prioritize staying consistently hydrated instead of obsessing over the number of glasses we drink.

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Some people say drinking lemon water helps eliminate toxins and cleanse the body. While adding a slice of lemon to your water is a refreshing way to stay hydrated, it doesn't have any special "detoxifying" powers. The vitamin C in citrus fruits is beneficial, but the body has its own natural detox system. The liver and kidneys are the main organs that filter waste and eliminate toxins.

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Not all fats are bad! Just like other food groups, your body needs fats to function properly. The important thing is knowing the difference between healthy fats and those that can be harmful. Foods like avocados, seeds, olive oil, fish, and nuts are rich in healthy fats. On the other hand, the fats found in processed or fried foods are the ones that can have a negative impact on your body.

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Liver diseases can be serious. While heavy and frequent consumption of alcohol and fats is a major contributor, it's not the only cause. Liver problems can also result from many other factors. These include viral infections, autoimmune diseases, genetic disorders, high blood pressure, and exposure to certain chemicals.

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There's some truth to it: breakfast is important because it replenishes our glucose and energy levels and supports proper metabolism. However, the idea that it's the most important meal of the day might be an exaggeration. Everyone's body has different needs, and all meals are important, so we shouldn't skip any of them!