Fake news in the Middle Ages: 10 legends that stand the test of time

Before dark web conspiracy theories, people had the tavern. Information in the Middle Ages traveled slowly, mutating with every retelling. What we now call urban legends back then were terrifying theological myths that thousands accepted as facts. Discover ten of the most famous medieval legends that shaped the worldview of Europe for centuries.

In the mid-13th century, there was a rumor that a woman had successfully disguised herself as a man, climbed the ranks of the Catholic Church, and reigned as Pope for several years in the 9th century.

According to the legend, John Anglicus was in fact an exceptionally brilliant English woman who mastered theology. Her secret was supposedly uncovered during a papal procession through Rome, when she went into sudden labor and gave birth right in the middle of the street. While modern historians believe the story is just satire or folklore, it was widely accepted as historical truth during the late Middle Ages.

The urban legend of a noble outlaw who outsmarted the corrupt sheriff of Nottingham and stole from the rich to give to the poor began circulating in oral ballads around the 14th century.

Modern audiences know him as a cheerful hero in green tights, but early medieval versions of Robin were much grittier, violent, and anti-clerical. Historians have spent centuries looking through court records trying to find a definitive Robin Hood. Most conclude he was a complex figure, the medieval manifestation of rebellion against an unfair system.

Originating in the late 12th century through the French romances of Chrétien de Troyes, the Grail was described as the sacred chalice used by Jesus Christ at the Last Supper, and later used to collect his blood during the Crucifixion.

The legend claimed that this vessel possessed miraculous healing powers, granted eternal youth, and provided infinite food. It became an obsession across Western Europe. Knights and nobles genuinely believed the Grail was hidden somewhere in a secluded castle, waiting for a perfectly pure warrior to find it.

Did a heroic king once rule Britain from a golden castle called Camelot, surrounded by a Round Table of knights? The legend of Arthur was popularized in the 1130s by Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of the Kings of Britain, a mixture of vague fragments of real 5th-century Celtic warlords and doses of pure fiction.

Arthur became the gold standard for medieval chivalry. The urban legend expanded to include his magical sword Excalibur, the wizard Merlin, and the tragic betrayal by his queen, Guinevere. The myth was so powerful that English monarchs, including Edward I, used Arthurian imagery to legitimize their rule, even claiming to have discovered Arthur’s tomb at Glastonbury Abbey in 1191.

The idea of a magical spring capable of reversing aging and curing all sickness is an ancient one, but it became a dominant urban legend during the Middle Ages. The myth was blown up by the Alexander Romance, a fictionalized collection of stories about Alexander the Great that circulated in Europe at the time.

According to these tales, Alexander and his armies searched for the "Water of Life" on the outer edges of the known world. Medieval travelers and mapmakers speculated that this fountain existed somewhere in India or the mythical lands of the East. This legend laid the groundwork that, centuries later, would drive Spanish explorers like Juan Ponce de León to hunt for it in the Americas.

Medieval life was deeply preoccupied with sin, demonic temptation, and the supernatural. When people experienced terrifying nightmares or sleep paralysis, they didn’t have modern psychology to explain it. Instead, they blamed the incubus and succubus.

An incubus was a male demon believed to prey upon sleeping women, while a succubus was a female demon that seduced men. These entities weren’t just folklore, they appeared in serious medieval theological texts. Church scholars even argued about how these demons operated, warning that they could steal human material to create monstrous offspring.

Following the Assyrian conquest of the Kingdom of Israel in the 8th century BCE, ten of the twelve Jewish tribes vanished from the biblical narrative. In the Middle Ages, this historical mystery became a geopolitical urban legend.

European Christians and Jews alike shared the thought that the Ten Lost Tribes were living out past the edges of the mapped world. They were said to be trapped behind the mythical Sambation River, a river made of stones and sand that only stopped flowing on the Sabbath. A major component of this legend was the fear or hope that these millions of hidden warriors would one day cross the river.

The Wandering Jew is one of the most tragic urban legends of the time, first appearing in written European chronicles around the 13th century. The story goes that a Jewish shoemaker or guardsman named Cartaphilus (or Ahasuerus in later versions) taunted Jesus as he carried his cross to Calvary, telling him to hurry up. Jesus supposedly replied: "I am going, but you will wait until I return."

As a result, the man was cursed with immortality and doomed to walk the earth without rest until the Second Coming of Christ. Throughout the Middle Ages, people across Europe claimed to have met this sorrowful traveler, describing him as a knowledgeable man who spoke every language.

In the year 1212, a wave of religious hysteria swept through France and Germany. The resulting story became one of the most heartbreaking urban legends of the era: the Children’s Crusade. The popular tale stated that thousands of unarmed children, inspired by visions, marched toward the Mediterranean Sea, believing the waters would part for them so they could peacefully reclaim Jerusalem. When the sea failed to part, corrupt merchants supposedly loaded them onto ships and sold them into slavery in North Africa.

Beginning in the mid-12th century, rumors spread of Prester John, a wealthy Christian king who ruled a utopian empire somewhere in the heart of Asia or Africa.

The legend reached a peak when a forged letter, supposedly written by Prester John himself, circulated among European monarchs. The letter described a kingdom with rivers filled with gold, the Fountain of Youth, and a mirror through which the king could see his entire empire. During the Crusades, European armies hoped that Prester John’s legions would march from the East to save them.

The truth about your brain

You won’t believe what happens in your brain while you sleep

Image: Milad Fakurian

Your brain is one of the most powerful and mysterious organs in your body. It controls everything from your thoughts to your emotions and even processes information at lightning speed. But how much do you really know about it? Some long-believed myths about the brain have been debunked, while other surprising facts reveal just how incredible this organ truly is. Get ready to be amazed by these fascinating brain facts!

Image: Natasha Connell

You’ve probably heard this one before, but it’s completely false! While it’s true that not all parts of the brain fire at the same time, imaging studies show that most regions are active throughout the day, even when we sleep.

Your brain is constantly working, controlling bodily functions and emotions, and processing information. So next time someone says you’re only using 10% of your brain, you can confidently tell them that’s just a myth!

Image: Aarón Blanco Tejedor

Here’s a weird fact: While your brain processes pain signals from the rest of your body, it has no pain receptors of its own. This is why surgeons can perform brain surgery on conscious patients without causing them pain.

However, the membranes and tissues surrounding the brain do have pain receptors, which is why headaches and brain injuries can be so excruciating.

Image: Usman Yousaf

How come we have headaches if the brain has no pain receptors? Well, that’s because headaches are triggered by chemical activity in the brain, changes in nerves and blood vessels, and even fluctuating serotonin levels.

In some cases, hormones like estrogen can also play a role, which explains why migraines are more common in women.

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Dreams are proof that your brain never rests! (Warning: this fact can make you feel exhausted.) While you sleep, your limbic system, that is, the part of the brain that deals with emotions, becomes especially active, which is why dreams often feel so intense.

On average, humans experience four to seven dreams per night, even if we don’t always remember them. And what about that scary nightmare about falling? Well, you can thank your amygdala, the brain’s fear center, for that one.

Image: Brett Jordan

Have you ever walked into a room and instantly forgotten what you were after? That’s because short-term memory only lasts about 20-30 seconds! That’s not enough!

Your brain holds a limited amount of information in its active state before deciding whether to store it or discard it. Ironically, we can’t really choose what makes the cut, but we do hope these facts stay with you!

Image: BUDDHI Kumar SHRESTHA

That sharp, icy pain when you eat something too cold? It’s your brain’s way of telling you to slow down! Officially called sphenopalatine ganglioneuralgia, a brain freeze happens when cold food or drinks rapidly chill the blood vessels in your throat, causing them to constrict and then rapidly expand. This sends pain signals to your brain, warning you of the sudden temperature shift. It’s annoying, but it’s actually your body trying to protect itself!

Image: Josh Riemer

You didn’t need us to tell you, but let’s look at the details: The average person has between 12,000 and 60,000 thoughts per day. What’s even more interesting? 95% of those thoughts are the same ones you had yesterday. Is that not surprising enough? Hear this out: 80% of them tend to be negative. That’s because our brains are wired for survival, constantly analyzing risks and potential dangers.

Image: Terry Vlisidis

Even though it only makes up about 2% of your body weight, your brain employs a major quantity of energy! It consumes 20% of your oxygen and blood supply, making it one of the most demanding organs in your body.

If your brain goes without oxygen for just five minutes, brain cells start dying, leading to irreversible damage. This is why deep breathing and cardiovascular exercise are great for brain health!

Image: Alexander Andrews

Do you know that feeling when you hit the back of your head and see stars? That’s because your occipital lobe, which controls vision, is located at the back of your brain. If you get hit there, your brain momentarily misfires, causing flashes of light.

Interestingly, your brain processes vision on the opposite side; while your right brain controls your left eye, your left brain controls your right eye. It’s one of the many ways the brain operates in a complex way.

Image: Rodion Kutsaiev

Believe it or not, your brain generates between 12 and 25 watts of electricity when you’re awake. If you can’t really grasp how powerful that is, check this out: It’s enough to power a small light bulb! Your brain’s electrical activity is what allows neurons to send signals at speeds of up to 260 miles per hour.

Image: Robina Weermeijer

Your brain may be the fattiest organ in your body, consisting of at least 60% fat! This is why consuming healthy fats, like omega-3s and omega-6s present in fish, for example, is essential for brain health.

Healthy fats stabilize brain cell walls, reduce inflammation, and support cognitive function. So go ahead and enjoy that avocado toast, it’s food for your brain!

Image: Robina Weermeijer

It’s not just your memory that fades over time; the brain itself physically shrinks as one gets older. It continues developing until your late 40s, but after that, it slowly decreases in size.

Now, size doesn’t equal intelligence, so a smaller brain doesn’t necessarily mean a less capable one. Staying mentally active, exercising, and eating brain-boosting foods can help keep it in top shape!

Image: Lisa Yount

We often think of cholesterol as bad, but your brain actually depends on it! In fact, 25% of your body’s cholesterol is stored in your brain, where it helps with learning and memory. However, unlike other organs, the brain can’t absorb cholesterol from the blood, it has to produce its own. So, while too much cholesterol in the body can be harmful, the right amount is vital for brain function. At least you can use that as an excuse to get that burger!