Odd plurals

Of Mice and People: The history of irregular plurals

Usually, plural English nouns are pretty straightforward. Just add an -s or -es, and you're done. However, there are more than a few odd ones out: words that change their vowels, acquire unexpected endings, or become almost unrecognizable. These irregular nouns are not random: they are linguistic leftovers from older forms of English and from the many languages that contributed to its vocabulary. Here's a list of 10 irregular plurals that are considerably more interesting than simply adding an -s.

While the plural of mouse looks like an exception today, it is actually a survivor from a much older way of forming plurals called i-mutation, common in Old English and many Germanic languages. It's the same process that gave us geese, feet, teeth, and lice, among others.

English eventually abandoned this system in favor of the -s and -es mechanism for building plurals, but these words survive as remnants of the old times.

Children is an interesting case of what linguists call double plurals: words that conserve two different marks of plurality in their construction.

The Old English word cild was pluralized as cildru originally, and eventually as childre. As the language evolved, speakers added the plural suffix -en (also found in words like oxen and brethren) to form the word children. In effect, the word accumulated two markers of plurality.

English normally has a strong tendency to simplify these cases, which makes the survival of the word children (instead of childs) especially remarkable.

Cactus is a good example of what happens when English borrows a word, but speakers can't quite decide whether to keep the original language's grammar. The word entered English from Latin, and the traditional Latin plural of cactus is _cacti.

_However, English has its own perfectly sensible way of making plurals, and that has produced the word cactuses. In modern English dictionaries, both words are accepted. Cacti sounds more traditional and is particularly common in botanical contexts, while cactuses sounds more natural to everyday speakers.

Few English plurals generate as much debate as octopus. You'll commonly encounter octopuses, octopi, and, more rarely, octopodes. So which one is correct?

The popular form octopi comes from the mistaken assumption that octopus is a Latin word ending in -us and should therefore form its plural with -i, just like cacti. In reality, the word comes from the Greek oktōpous, meaning "eight-footed." Following Classical Greek rules, the plural should be octopodes.

While octopodes is closer to the original Greek, it's only common in specialized discussions. For ordinary English, octopuses is the simplest and most widely accepted choice.

In Latin, the singular datum means something that has been given, and data is its plural. English borrowed both forms, particularly in scientific and academic writing, where the distinction has remained important for centuries.

Today, datum is much less common outside of specialized contexts. While in formal scientific writing data is often still treated as plural, in everyday use many speakers treat it as a singular mass noun, as in "The data is stored on the server." The plural has effectively become more widespread than its original singular.

Phenomenon is another Greek word whose traditional plural has survived intact. In Greek, phainomenon referred to something that appears or is observed, while phenomena was its plural. English borrowed the pair through Latin and preserved the Greek-style ending.

Unlike cactus, where English developed an alternative plural, phenomena remains firmly established in educated and technical writing. It is especially common in science, where researchers may discuss multiple natural phenomena.

Both brothers and brethren are perfectly valid plurals of brother. However, in a surprising twist, they took on different nuances: while brothers is used for male siblings ordinarily, brethren (the older form) survived mainly in religious, fraternal, and formal contexts.

Brethren was once a normal plural of brother, but as English developed, the regular -s plural became increasingly dominant. Rather than disappearing completely, the older form became specialized. That gives us a fascinating example of a word developing two different plurals that coexist because they acquired different meanings.

The word die, referring to a single numbered polyhedron (most commonly a cube) used in games, entered English through the Old French dé, while dice developed from the French plural dés.

While the distinction is still very much in use, the singular die is losing strength in everyday English, and dice is increasingly being treated as both a plural and a singular noun. In time, the singular form die may disappear from everyday English vocabulary.

People is an especially interesting plural because it didn't originally come from the same word as person. The two words have completely different Latin origins.

Person ultimately comes from Latin persona, meaning a person, character, or role. People comes from Latin populus, meaning a population or nation, passing into English through French. Over time, English speakers began using people as the ordinary plural of person, even though the two words had separate histories.

The regular plural persons still exists and is perfectly legitimate, particularly in legal and formal contexts when referring to a group of individuals. But in ordinary conversation, people has become overwhelmingly dominant.

Index has two established plurals, and the choice between them often depends on what you're talking about. Indexes is the ordinary English plural, while indices preserves the Latin form and is especially common in mathematics, science, and economics.

The Latin plural indices survived in specialized fields because scholars continued using Latin-derived terminology. Meanwhile, ordinary English speakers naturally applied the familiar -es ending and produced indexes. Both forms are now standard.

Extraordinary

Superhumans: 10 gifted people with impressive abilities

Image: DangrafArt

We are often unaware of the unlimited potential of human beings. Certain individuals possess unique and powerful abilities that are truly extraordinary. From a woman who can see inside the human body to a man who experiences colors and textures in numbers, these people are living proof of the incredible diversity of human talent and resilience. Read on to learn the stories of 10 individuals who have such amazing skills that they are almost superhuman.

Image: john ko

On Jeju Island, South Korea, a group of women—some as old as 80—dive into freezing water without tanks or thermal suits. The haenyeo are not afraid of the cold; they descend up to 30 feet deep hunting for shellfish and can hold their breath for as long as two minutes.

But how is this possible? It's not magic—it’s adaptation. Since they have been diving for centuries, their bodies have adapted to extreme conditions. Recently, scientists discovered that these legendary divers have unique genetic traits that regulate their blood pressure, increasing their tolerance to cold and protecting them even during pregnancy. Researchers compared the DNA of haenyeo with that of other non-diving Korean women and found significant differences.

Image: Randy Tarampi

Chris Robinson, or Dream Detective, as he calls himself, claims to be able to see the future in his dreams. Since 1989, he says he has dreamt of crimes, natural disasters, and even collaborated with law enforcement on several cases.

His uncanny ability has been studied multiple times, and on one occasion, he was able to accurately predict a series of events that would happen the next day. While Robinson doesn’t always get it right, his record of claimed premonitions is intriguing and has earned him considerable attention.

Image: Nikhita Singhal

In 1973, Thai Ngoc developed a severe fever from a rare illness. He recovered after a few weeks, but was affected by a strange medical condition that scientists cannot explain: Thai Ngoc claims he can’t sleep, not even for a moment.

The Vietnamese farmer is now 83 years old and says he hasn't slept in more than 60 years. Even prescription medications have failed to help him rest. So what does he do during those endless nights? He spends his time farming and making his own rice wine!

Image: lhon karwan

Natalya Demkina, a young woman from Russia, can see inside people's bodies. At least that's what she claims and has been trying to prove over the years. The first time she declared to have this ability, she was 10 years old, and everyone thought it was childish nonsense. However, as time went by, Natalya proved she could actually diagnose a person just by looking at them for a few minutes.

Scientists have carried out various tests to investigate her claims, often with mixed or skeptical results. Still, many continue to believe in her powers. What do you think? Is it true?

Image: Logan Voss

Elisabeth Sulser suffers from a strange condition called synesthesia. A synaesthete can hear colors and see sounds, as well as experience taste when she touches a particular texture. It is a rare neurological condition, and Elisabeth Sulser presents one of the most complex cases of synesthesia in the world.

As a child, she believed her unusual perceptions were completely normal. It wasn’t until her teenage years, while beginning her musical career, that she learned she had this rare neurological condition. Today, she is a successful performer and composer. How do you think she feels about her own music?

Image: Gobierno CDMX, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

Stephen Wiltshire is an English artist famous for his extraordinary ability to draw detailed landscapes entirely from memory after seeing them just once. Diagnosed with autism at the age of three—the same year his father was killed in a motorcycle accident—Wiltshire found comfort in drawing. Encouraged by his teachers, he used art not only to express himself but also as a bridge to learning speech.

His ability is so impressive that in 2006, Prince Charles of England made him a Member of the Order of the British Empire in recognition of his artistic work.

Image: Thomas T

When he was 10 years old, American Orlando Serrell was struck in the head by a baseball and briefly knocked unconscious. After recovering, he discovered he could solve complex math problems in record time. Serrell suffers from brain damage, and although his mathematical ability was latent before the accident, his trauma turned him into a genius.

Acquired savant syndrome is a rare condition in which a person develops exceptional skills after a brain injury or trauma. In addition to his mathematical abilities, Serrell has other rare skills, such as being able to remember what the weather was like every day since his accident, or identify the day of the week for almost any date mentioned to him.

Image: Alex Kinkate

The American ultramarathon runner Dean Karnazes is no ordinary athlete; his body works in an extraordinary way. He has a rare physiological adaptation that allows him to efficiently clear lactic acid from his muscles, preventing the painful buildup that normally forces people to stop.

Lactic acid is responsible for the hot, burning sensation we feel when we do physical activity. Because Karnazes' muscles always receive the necessary oxygen, he never gets tired and can keep running for miles without even taking a break. This uncanny ability has allowed him to set an incredible record in the United States: he ran 50 marathons in 50 states in 50 consecutive days.

Image: Alexandru-Bogdan Ghita

Daniel Tammet is a British writer and scholar celebrated for his extraordinary skills in mathematics and languages. Diagnosed with high-functioning autism and having experienced epilepsy as a child, he can perform complex calculations, memorize vast sequences of numbers, and learn new languages with remarkable speed.

In addition, Tammet experiences synesthesia, which enables him to assign totally unique physical properties to each number. He can even identify numbers according to the way their surface feels to the touch, awakening in him a totally different set of emotions each time.

Image: Markus Spiske

Joy Milne is a Scottish nurse known for her remarkable sense of smell, which allows her to detect Parkinson’s disease. She first noticed this unusual ability when she detected a distinctive musky odor on her husband, twelve years before he was officially diagnosed.

Researchers have since confirmed her talent, finding that she can identify a specific odor in the sebum of people with Parkinson’s. Thanks to Joy’s extraordinary sense of smell, progress has been made in early diagnosis and research, offering hope to those affected by the disease.