The Norman influence

You say "beef," I say "cow": 12 ways French language moved in and stayed

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It is a well-known fact that the English language is closely related to languages like German, Dutch, Scots, and Afrikaans. After all, they all belong to the West Germanic family of languages. But at the same time, to express this idea, we have to use the word "language"—which isn’t Germanic at all.

Like thousands of other English words, language is of French origin. The French-Norman conquest of 1066 not only irrevocably changed the course of English history but also completely transformed the English language. It is estimated that nearly 40% of the English lexicon derives from French—and that number doesn’t even account for compound words or French terms introduced through other languages. Let’s take a look at twelve areas of English that were influenced by French.

The nobility

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King and queen, the highest-ranking members of the nobility, are words of Germanic origin—but that’s about as far as it goes. For two centuries after the conquest, French was the official language of the English court, and its influence is evident in words like prince, dame, baron, duke, marquess, count, monarch, royal, sovereign, and even in the motto of the British monarchy: Dieu et mon droit ("God and my right").

The meat

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A significant portion of cuisine-related terms in English are of French origin, but the way we speak about meat was particularly shaped by the differences between the Anglo-Saxon peasants and the French ruling class. Many meats came to have two different names: an Old English term for the live animal (pig, cow, calf, or sheep), and a French-derived term for the meat served at the table (pork, beef, veal, or mutton). The word chicken remained unchanged (though poultry was adopted), and the continued use of fish may be due to the unfortunate similarity between its French equivalent, poisson, and the English word poison.

The law

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Norman French, being the language of the court, meant that official documents and legal proceedings were heavily influenced by it. The English legal system developed a blend of Old English, French, and Anglo-Norman terminology, known as Law French, which was used for centuries. While Law French is now obsolete as a spoken language, its legacy lives on in terms such as attorney, judge, jury, court, defendant, culprit, bailiff, and parole, among many others.

The religion

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While both the French conquerors and the conquered Anglo-Saxons professed the same religion, the influence of the Norman French ruling class is evident in the vocabulary used to describe religious organization. Examples include words such as saint, abbot, priest, clergy, cloister, vicar, parish, friar, and diocese.

The heraldry

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Since the Norman conquerors became the ruling class, it’s not surprising that heraldry, closely associated with rank and nobility, adopted their Norman French terms. And while the everyday English speaker may not regularly discuss coats of arms, we can see the French influence of heraldry in the names of mythical beasts such as dragon, griffin, and phoenix; exotic animals like lion, leopard, dolphin, elephant, and giraffe; and even native European animals such as eagle, ferret, falcon, squirrel, and viper.

The army

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The superiority of the Norman army was evident not only in the conquest of the island and the suppression of multiple rebellions, but also in the military vocabulary it left behind. Words such as soldier, army, battalion, artillery, corps, infantry, siege, and latrine, along with military ranks like captain, admiral, lieutenant, sergeant, and colonel, are clear examples of French influence in the warfare lexicon.

The diplomacy

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The French have long been considered masters of diplomacy, and their influence is evident in the English diplomatic vocabulary. Words such as embassy, attaché, envoy, diplomacy, passport, treaty, alliance, and protocol are just a few examples.

Politics and the economy

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The English political and economic lexicon was deeply influenced during the period when Norman French was regularly spoken at court, incorporating words such as state, treasury, plebiscite, coup d’état, regime, sovereignty, bureaucracy, and finance. However, this influence was not limited to court matters—common people also adopted French words like money, commerce, and tax.

The arts

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The ruling classes have always had a great influence on matters related to culture and its various expressions. French influence is evident in artistic vocabulary such as author, literature, music, dance, paint, canvas, theatre, stage, melody, harmony, portrait, and sculpture.

The colors

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For basic colors like black, white, yellow, and red, the English language retained the Germanic forms of the words. Surprisingly, this was not the case with blue, which is of French origin. French influence is even more evident in specific color shades such as vermilion, beige, maroon, mauve, turquoise, scarlet, lilac, and russet.

The orthography

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While the main French influence on the English language can be seen in vocabulary, other areas of the language were affected as well. If you’ve ever thought that English orthography is all over the place, you might be thinking about Old English words of Anglo-Saxon, Norse, or Germanic origin whose spellings were influenced by Norman French. Examples include queen (originally cween), ship (schip), bridge (brigge), and love (luve). Letters derived from Germanic or Irish runes were also affected by the French alphabet and eventually fell out of use.

The pronouns

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There is a reason why people joking about the Middle Ages use words like thee and **thou**—these were standard pronouns at the time. The influence of French, particularly its pronoun "vous," led to the replacement of these pronouns with words like ye, which later evolved into you. Old English pronouns still survive in words like this, that, and those, as well as in religious prayers and texts.

An evolving palette

A rainbow of history: 10 colors that have changed their meaning over time

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What would life be like without color? Since ancient times, humanity has been captivated by colors, making great efforts to replicate them—first on the rough walls of caves, then on canvases, and eventually on everything we create. Though colors are simply _tricks of the light_—wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum—we’ve assigned deep meanings to them. These hues, in both bold contrasts and subtle shades, have shaped our cultures throughout history. Yet, just like language, their meanings have evolved. From pink once symbolizing masculinity to the concept of color as camouflage, the story of color is rich and ever-changing.

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Red is, in more ways than one, the first color. In most languages, it is the first color named after black and white. It also happens to be the earliest pigment used by humans in art—prehistoric cave paintings from 75,000 years ago already feature red ochre, a pigment derived from clay. Red is also the first color a baby sees in the womb, and in nature, it frequently serves as a warning signal, used by animals and plants to deter predators.

Given its significance, it’s no surprise that red is one of the most popular colors in the world, carrying diverse meanings across different cultures. In many Asian cultures, red is associated with happiness and good fortune, while in most Western countries, it is strongly linked to love, passion, and danger. Throughout the twentieth century, it has also been adopted by various political movements as a symbol of strength and independence.

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In ancient times, blue was not recognized as a distinct color in many languages, including Greek, Chinese, and Hebrew, where it was seen as an extension of green. And even today, languages like Korean and Thai still blur the line between blue and green.

Nowadays, blue is the most popular color worldwide, often associated with calmness due to its connection with the sky and water. Curiously, its calming effects seem to extend beyond symbolism; studies from Japan and Scotland have shown that blue streetlights can reduce crime rates. Also, blue can convey a sense of sadness, as seen in the phrase "feeling blue," a connection likely rooted in its association with water and, by extension, tears.

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Though pink has been described in literature since ancient times —a famous passage from Homer describes a _"rosy-fingered" dawn_— it didn’t have a proper name until the late 17th century. Nowadays, its soft hue is strongly associated with femininity, but this was not always the case.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, pink was actually considered more suitable for boys, viewed as a youthful version of masculine red, while blue was linked to girls due to its association with the Virgin Mary. Although its gender associations have since reversed, pink remains widely associated with charm, tenderness, and romance, according to various surveys.

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While black might sometimes be described as the absence of color, in practice it has always been an important part of humanity’s palette. In fact, black has a long history, dating back to prehistoric cave paintings, where it was derived from charcoal, burnt bones, and manganese oxide.

While black often symbolizes death, fear, or sadness, it has also represented mystery and divine wisdom. By the 1300s, it was associated with authority and status, worn by royalty, clergy, and officials throughout Europe. In the 1800s, it gained favor among poets and businessmen, and since then, it has remained one of the most popular colors in fashion, likely due to its versatility and association with elegance.

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Surprisingly, for many centuries white was a somewhat dangerous color due to its most popular pigment—Lead White—being derived from basic lead carbonate, a highly toxic compound. Despite this, the pigment was used extensively in paint and even cosmetics until it was finally banned in 1978.

Historically, white has symbolized purity and virtue, particularly in religious and cultural ceremonies. Roman brides wore white tunics over 2,000 years ago to signify virginity, and Queen Victoria’s white wedding gown in 1840 set the trend for modern bridal wear. However, in many Asian cultures, white represents mourning and is worn at funerals instead of weddings.

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Green is commonly associated with nature, but it has a darker side, linked to concepts like envy, illness, and poison. One of its most infamous examples is Scheele’s Green, a pigment invented in 1775 by Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, which contained arsenic. This toxic pigment was used in various applications, including wallpaper, and it is believed to have contributed to the death of Napoleon Bonaparte, whose room was decorated with it.

Historically, green symbolizes not only the natural world but also wisdom. The ancient Egyptians associated green with the god Thoth, who guided souls to eternal life and knowledge, a connection later adopted by the Romans with their god Mercury. The word "green" itself derives from the Proto-Indo-European word "ghre," meaning "grow," highlighting its connection to nature and growth.

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Purple has long been associated with royalty and wealth, primarily due to the exorbitant cost of the dye used to create it. This tradition dates back to the Byzantine Empire, where Tyrian purple, derived from sea snails, required over 250,000 snails to produce just one ounce of dye. This tedious process made purple fabrics accessible only to the elite, and in some cases, sumptuary laws further restricted its use among non-nobility.

It wasn’t until the invention of a synthetic purple dye in 1856 that the color became widely available. Today, purple is the second most favorite color among women worldwide and is a fashionable hue worn year-round. Interestingly, despite its associations with wealth and power, the color appears in very few national flags, including those of Dominica, Spain, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Mexico.

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Curiously, oranges are not named after the color; rather, the color takes its name from the fruit! Before the 1500s, the color orange didn’t have a name and was referred to as yellow-red or saffron. This color was often reserved for nobility, and it is said that Dutch farmers bred orange carrots—previously, most carrots were actually purple—as a tribute to the House of Orange, one of the most powerful royal families in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries.

Today, orange is recognized for its high visibility, making it a practical choice for safety equipment like life jackets, construction barriers, and road signage. One famous example of this application is the Golden Gate Bridge, painted in a shade known as "International Orange" to ensure strong contrast against blue skies. In India and the Middle East, orange is also associated with mourning and sacredness.

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Khaki is often utilized by militaries around the world for uniforms, particularly in arid regions where it blends seamlessly with sandy or dusty terrain. The term itself has been part of the English language since 1848, derived from an Urdu word meaning "soil-colored," and was originally introduced as a military color by the British Army.

Its practicality was recognized in the early 19th century as a response to the limitations of bright colors, like the traditional red coats, which were impractical for camouflage in combat. Today, khaki has also become a staple in civilian smart casual fashion, being associated with adventure and outdoorsmanship, and with the word itself often referring to a specific type of khaki-colored chino trousers.