A piece of medieval wisdom

10 medieval inventions that changed the Western world

The idea that the Middle Ages were a time of ignorance and technological stagnation is widespread, but nothing could be further from the truth, especially considering that the medieval period lasted nearly 10 centuries.

Although the first few centuries of the medieval period were marked by chaos due to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire and the birth of new nations, many technological advances during the Middle Ages contributed to shaping the modern world.

Humanity has been trying to measure time since the beginning of history. Ancient civilizations developed several types of clocks—some more accurate than others—such as sundials, hourglasses, and water clocks.

Fully mechanical clocks appeared in the 13th century, usually installed in church towers, and were equipped with bells to announce the passing of hours. More advanced versions also featured hands to display the time.

Growing the same crop repeatedly on the same plot of land leads to the soil losing nutrients and becoming unproductive. Farmers were aware of this and had been using crop rotation in a two-field system since antiquity: they would sow half of the land and leave the other half to rest. The following year, the roles would be reversed, ensuring the soil remained fertile.

In the 8th century, medieval farmers started dividing the land into three parts: one was planted with winter crops (sown in the fall), another with spring crops such as legumes, and the third was left to rest. This new method not only increased the harvest, but the greater diversity of crops improved overall nutrition due to the greater diversity of food.

There are records of visual aids used in ancient Rome and Greece, often made from precious stones like emeralds, and Arabic sources describe the use of magnifying glasses. However, the first pair of eyeglasses was developed in Italy in the mid-13th century. These early glasses had convex lenses, meaning they were only useful for farsighted individuals. Glasses with concave lenses, suitable for nearsightedness, would not be developed until the 15th century.

The existence of prestigious learning centers in antiquity is well documented, but universities as we know them are a medieval development. In the chaos of the early Middle Ages, Christian monasteries preserved and transmitted classical knowledge, becoming centers of education and research.

The University of Bologna, founded in 1088, is considered the first institution to be academically independent and to award higher education degrees to both clergy and laypeople.

While humans had already been using grindstones to sharpen knives and weapons for centuries, they used a static stone, which required a significant effort for the person doing the sharpening.

The earliest known record of a rotating grindstone machine operated by a lever dates to the 8th century. By the 14th century, a pedal-and-crank mechanism had been incorporated, allowing for better control of the speed and making the sharpening process much easier.

Ancient mariners and travelers used the stars and other natural landmarks to determine their geographic position, but this method depended on good weather and clear skies. By the 13th century, some records describe sailors using a magnetized needle floating in water to point north.

The modern, round compass is often attributed to the Italian sailor Flavio Gioia in the early 14th century. He is said to have combined the floating needle with a wind rose and encased it in a box, making it portable, reliable, and easy to use.

Many people believe Gutenberg to be the inventor of the printing press, but woodblock printing dates back to ancient China, and the screw press had already been introduced by the Romans in the 1st century. By Gutenberg’s time, paper presses were widely used in Europe, but what was groundbreaking were the changes he introduced to the printing process.

Gutenberg modified the basic paper press to mechanize it and ensure even pressure across the paper surface. He also developed a system of movable type, which allowed the press to reproduce any text at a higher speed. He is also credited with the development of an oil-based ink, more suitable for paper printing than the traditional water-based ink.

The ancient Greeks and Romans developed central heating systems that relied on hot air traveling through pipes, but these systems disappeared after the fall of the Roman Empire. During the medieval period, Christian monks living in the Alps developed a new system that used underfloor channels to carry heat from a furnace. By the 13th century, monasteries in Spain started using water to carry heat, in the same way that some of the modern heating systems do.

Although the Romans had created industrial chimneys for their bakeries, true domestic chimneys and fireplaces were developed in the Middle Ages to allow people to cook indoors and heat their homes safely. These early chimneys were wider than modern chimneys to allow more heat to remain in the room, and had a cap to cover the chimney top in case of downdrafts. Though it’s worth noting that domestic chimneys became more common around the 12th–13th centuries in Europe.

Fire has long been used as a weapon during wars, especially to burn down fortresses and ships. However, fire can be easily countered with water or other fire-retardant materials.

In the 7th century, during the Muslim sieges of Constantinople, the Byzantines reportedly used an incendiary weapon developed by an architect named Callinicus. This formula produced a substance that could burn even on water, helping the Byzantines repel the enemy navy. Greek fire is considered a precursor to modern incendiary weapons, influencing the development of devices like the hand grenade.

Archaic vocabulary

Discover 10 old and forgotten words that should make a comeback!

Image: Patrick Tomasso

Language is considered a living tissue, so it stands to reason that the words we use as we move through the decades change with us: Since we have no use for some words, they sadly fade from existence and are ultimately forgotten. However, that doesn’t need to be the case: Who says we can’t launch some kind of conservation effort to keep words relevant? With that in mind, we have selected 10 forgotten words that we think should make a well-deserved comeback. We honestly believe that adding these terms to our collective vocabularies would make our lives easier, or at least, more colorful. Enjoy!

Image: Torsten Dederichs

"Balderdash" sounds like the perfect noun for a bold and daring adventurer, someone who doesn’t fret in the face of danger. However, the actual definition of this word can’t be further from these notions: Balderdash is an extremely old expression used to describe a senseless, stupid, or exaggerated way of speaking or writing. Not only that, but it can also be used as an exclamation of disbelief, similar to other old-timey terms like "baloney" or "hogwash."

Image: Resume Genius

For such a silly-sounding word, "donnybrook" has some rather rowdy definitions. While some dictionaries define it as a synonym for fight or brawl, others definitions for these words don’t delve into physical altercations: A donnybrook could be a flashy and public argument, for instance. It would seem that the one quality that any "donnybrook" worth its wacky name should cause some sort of uproar.

Image: JOSHUA COLEMAN

Another funny-sounding word in this article (be ready for many more), the term ballyhoo is as charming as it sounds. This word is used to describe something that tries to get people excited, usually in a flashy or ostentatious manner. For instance, an advertisement campaign might make a lot of "ballyhoo" to get audiences excited about a certain product, movie, or book.

Image: Noah Buscher

Now, I know what you are thinking: Although not extremely popular, this word is sometimes used in our modern times. However, we would like to make the case that it is not used nearly enough. As you probably know, "tomfoolery" is a term used to describe playful, silly, or foolish behavior. While it is sometimes used as a pejorative term, especially in formal situations where foolish behavior is looked down upon, the truth is that this term is harmless enough to warrant its promotion in modern vocabularies.

Image: Maxime Gilbert

Let’s start with a small disclaimer: We do not condone physical violence, so please don’t go around throwing fisticuffs with strangers. This old-timey term dates back to at least the 17th century and remained popular until the 1930s. As the name suggests, the word fisticuffs relates to fighting with your fists: However, in some cases, it has also been used to describe an extremely heated or volatile argument between two people.

Image: charlesdeluvio

Galoot definitively sounds like a term of endearment. You might have heard someone refer to their beloved (and massive) Big Dane as "a big galoot." However, tread lightly if you think about using this word: After all, it describes someone extremely clumsy or awkward. In any case, "galoot" is such a silly-sounding word that bringing it back seems like a good idea, if only for the many adorable dogs that might be called a galoot.

Image: Towfiqu barbhuiya

We live in a world that loves abbreviations: The internet age has given us extremely popular terms like LOL and OMG. In that sense, don’t you think the expression "the day after tomorrow" is a bit of a mouthful? However, the archaic word "overmorrow" might be the answer we are looking for. This term is short, concise, and perfectly summarizes the day after tomorrow in only one word. We hope that this article helps launch this term into popularity.

Image: Everton Vila

Limerence is basically another word for being lovesick: It describes the involuntary obsession and melancholic feelings that come with falling in love with someone. Think of all those soap opera characters longing for the one they can’t have, often staring at a picture on a locket or at the falling rain: Those are, in our opinion, the best examples of limerence.

Image: Ben White

If old-timey gangster films have taught us anything, it is that "rat" is not only the name of one of our least favorite rodents but also the term used to describe someone who discloses information to the police. In that sense, the pejorative term "ratfink" applies to not only the act of "snitching", but also to someone utterly unpleasant or obnoxious.

Image: Wonderlane

"Chatoyant" is one of those words that doesn’t really do justice to the gorgeous natural event it describes: This term (which derives from a concept known as "the chatoyancy effect") describes a unique concept on which reflected light appears as well-defined bands on a glossy surface. This gorgeous occurrence, reminiscent of a cat’s eye, doesn’t seem reflected by the clumsiness of the word "chatoyant," but that doesn’t mean that we shouldn’t bring it to our collective attention.